======Savings and Loan (S&L)======
A Savings and Loan association (also known as a "thrift") is a type of financial institution that was created to be the Main Street hero of banking. Unlike its big-city cousin, the commercial bank, which historically focused on businesses, the S&L had a simple and noble mission: take in deposits from local community members and then use that money to provide them with [[mortgage]] loans to buy homes. For decades, they were the bedrock of the American dream of homeownership, operating on a famously straightforward model. They were often "mutual" associations, meaning they were owned by their depositors, not outside stockholders. This structure was designed to align the institution's interests with those of its community. However, this quaint picture was shattered by one of the most spectacular financial meltdowns in U.S. history, offering timeless lessons for every investor.
===== The "3-6-3 Rule" and the Good Old Days =====
For a long time, running an S&L was considered one of the cushiest jobs in finance. The business was governed by the unofficial "3-6-3 Rule":
  * Pay depositors **3%** interest on their savings accounts.
  * Lend that money out in the form of home mortgages at **6%** interest.
  * Be on the golf course by **3** PM.
This simple model created a predictable and stable [[net interest margin]], the bread and butter of banking profits. The business was local, understandable, and, for a while, incredibly safe. S&Ls were the quintessential "boring" businesses that a [[value investor]] could appreciate. They knew their customers, understood their local housing market, and rarely strayed from their core competency. This was a golden era of stability, but it was built on an assumption that would prove to be fatal: that interest rates would remain relatively stable.
===== The Great Unraveling: The S&L Crisis =====
The S&L crisis of the 1980s and early 1990s was a slow-motion train wreck that ultimately cost U.S. taxpayers over $150 billion. It serves as a masterclass in how economic shifts, flawed regulation, and human greed can demolish a once-stable industry.
==== The Perfect Storm of the 1970s and 80s ====
The crisis wasn't caused by a single event, but by a confluence of disastrous factors.
  * **Rampant Inflation and Soaring Interest Rates:** The 1970s brought punishing inflation. To combat it, [[Federal Reserve]] Chairman [[Paul Volcker]] hiked interest rates to unprecedented levels. This was a deathblow to the S&L model. Suddenly, they had to pay double-digit interest rates on new deposits to stop savers from pulling their money out. However, their income was still trickling in from old, 30-year mortgages earning a measly 6%. This created a catastrophic [[asset-liability mismatch]]: their short-term funding costs skyrocketed past their long-term earnings.
  * **Well-Intentioned but Disastrous Deregulation:** To "help" the struggling S&Ls, Congress passed new laws, like the [[Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980]] and the [[Garn-St. Germain Depository Institutions Act of 1982]]. This deregulation allowed S&Ls to move beyond simple home loans and into riskier ventures like commercial real estate development, speculative land deals, and [[junk bonds]]. Essentially, politicians gave the keys to the sports car to people who had only ever driven a station wagon.
  * **Moral Hazard on Steroids:** The final ingredient was a massive dose of [[moral hazard]]. At the same time it allowed for riskier investments, the government increased the deposit insurance from the [[FDIC]] to $100,000 per account. Depositors no longer had any incentive to choose a safe, prudent S&L over a reckless one—their money was guaranteed by the taxpayer either way. This created a "heads I win, tails you lose" scenario for unscrupulous S&L operators, who could make wild bets with government-insured money.
==== Fraud, Folly, and Failure ====
The result was an explosion of fraud and mismanagement. S&L executives, with little experience in complex finance, plunged their institutions' capital into speculative ventures they didn't understand. Some were simply incompetent; many others were outright corrupt. High-profile figures like Charles Keating of Lincoln Savings and Loan became symbols of the era's excess, using depositor funds as a personal piggy bank. By the late 1980s, hundreds of S&Ls had failed, leaving a mountain of bad loans and a massive bill for the American public.
===== Lessons for the Value Investor =====
The S&L crisis is not just a historical footnote; it is a treasure trove of wisdom. As [[Warren Buffett]] says, "It's good to learn from your mistakes. It's better to learn from other people's mistakes."
  - **Lesson 1: Understand the Business Model.** An investor in the 1960s could easily understand an S&L. By the 1980s, it had become a black box of risky commercial loans and complex financial instruments. If you can't explain the business to a ten-year-old in a few sentences, you probably shouldn't own it.
  - **Lesson 2: Beware the "Reach for Yield".** When a stable business faces pressure, management is often tempted to take on huge risks to maintain historical profit levels. The S&Ls' desperate jump into junk bonds and speculative real estate is a textbook example of this dangerous "reach for yield."
  - **Lesson 3: Leverage Kills.** S&Ls, like all banks, operate with high [[leverage]]. When you combine high leverage with a flawed business model and risky assets, the outcome is almost always total ruin. The smallest hiccup can wipe out all of the equity.
  - **Lesson 4: Incentives Drive Everything.** The combination of deregulation and expanded deposit insurance created a perverse set of incentives that encouraged recklessness. When analyzing a company, always ask: How does management get paid? What behavior do the rules of the industry encourage?
===== S&Ls Today =====
The S&L industry as it once was is largely gone. The crisis led to a massive cleanup and re-regulation. Most S&Ls either failed, converted into standard commercial banks, or were acquired. While a few "thrifts" still exist today, they operate under much stricter rules. The term is now mostly historical, but the lessons on the dangers of leverage, asset-liability mismatches, and perverse incentives remain as relevant as ever.